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Introduction As a researcher and a human being we have always asked ourselves questions, as much about the phenomena we observe on a daily basis as the deepest mysteries of nature. All of us in our daily lives explore, investigate, invent, solving problems at work, trying out new recipes in the kitchen, finding the best way to prune a plant, or simply playing with the kids.
Dedicating our lives to research means making study and experiment our profession, and leads these activities to the acquisition of new knowledge. In this module, all the information was gathered through the use of the different internet websites including different books in order to get the information needed to give an essential knowledge and skills of the young researcher like you!
Unlock your imaginations and creativity, spread your eyes around you, and make research as your baseline in making decision. You can change the world by your own simple discovery. Come on! Join us in this adventure and let us see the treasure that we discover. To their beloved Parents, for undying love they have given them, also for the full support and guidance.
They never left them; they were always there to encourage and never stop believing in them. To Dr. Evelyn Corpuz-Biay, thank Prof. To all the students serves as inspirations of this module, thank you so much!
Research topic to be avoided………………… 16 Writing a Research Title…………………….. Module 5: Finding Answers through Data Collection…….. Introduction An inquiry and research are two terms are almost the same in meaning.
Both of them involved investigative work and any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem. A theory of inquiry is an account of the various types of inquiry and a treatment of the ways that each type of inquiry achieves its aim while research is to discover truths by investigating on your chosen topic scientifically.
Intended Learning Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Inquiry is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or information about people, things, places, or events. Baraceros It requires you to collect data, meaning, facts, and information about the object of your inquiry, and examine such data carefully. On other hand, in your analysis, you execute varied thinking strategies that range from lower-order to higher-order thinking skills such as inferential, critical, integrative, creative thinking.
Furthermore, according to Badke cited by Baraceros, solving a problem, especially social issues, does not only involved yourself but other members of the society too. Whatever knowledge you have about world bears the influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or ideological understanding of the world. We research the best buys in cars and appliances, we research book reviews before shopping for books, we research the best schools for our children and ourselves, and we probably perform some kind of research in our jobs.
Our search for information may lead us to interview friends or other knowledgeable people; read articles in magazines, journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and even explore the Internet and World Wide Web for information.
We use our local public libraries and our school libraries. Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives. Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to the claims of advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in making sense of the world around us.
This informal, experiential research helps us decipher the flood of information we encounter daily. Formal academic research differs from experiential research and may be more investigative in nature. For example, it may require us to learn about an area in which we have little knowledge or inclination to learn. It may be library-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of the research.
Quantitative research designs are either descriptive subjects usually measured once or experimental subjects measured before and after a treatment. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality. Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent 2 9. Its main characteristics are: 1. The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.
Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data. The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this section. Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis.
Explain your handling of missing data and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis. Specify any computer programs used. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible. Secondary data such as census data, government statistics, health system metrics, etc. Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical methods. Quantitative approaches are best used to answer what, when and who questions and are not well suited to how and why questions.
More reliable and objective 2. More reliable and objective 3. Can use statistics to generalize a finding 4. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables 4 Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled circumstances 6. Tests theories or hypotheses 7.
Assumes sample is representative of the population 8. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less 9. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant All experiments examine some kind of variable s.
A variable is not only something that we measure, but also something that we can manipulate and something we can control for. To understand the characteristics of variables and how we use them in research, this guide is divided into three main sections.
First, we illustrate the role of dependent and independent variables. Second, we discuss the difference between experimental and non-experimental research. Finally, we explain how variables can be characterized as either categorical or continuous.
Imagine that a tutor asks students to complete a math test. The tutor wants to know why some students perform better than others. Whilst the tutor does not know the answer to this, she thinks that it might be because of two reasons: 1 some students spend more time revising for their test; and 2 some students are naturally more intelligent than others.
As such, the tutor decides to investigate the effect of revision time and intelligence on the test performance of the students. The dependent and independent variables for the study are: Dependent Variable: Test Mark measured from 0 to Independent Variables: Revision time measured in hours Intelligence measured using IQ score The dependent variable is simply that, a variable that is dependent on an independent variable s.
For example, in our case the test mark that a student achieves is dependent on revision time and intelligence. Whilst revision time and intelligence the independent variables may or may not cause a change in the test mark the dependent variable , the reverse is implausible; in other words, whilst the number of hours a student spends revising and the higher a student's IQ score may or may not change the test mark that a student achieves, a change in a student's test mark has no bearing on whether a student revises more or is more intelligent this simply doesn't make sense.
Therefore, the aim of the tutor's investigation is to examine whether these independent variables - revision time and IQ - result in a change in the dependent variable, the students' test scores. However, it is also worth noting that whilst this is the main aim of the experiment, the tutor may also be interested to know if the independent variables - revision time and IQ - are also connected in some way.
In the section on experimental and non-experimental research that follows, we find out a little more about the nature of independent and dependent variables. Three types of variables defined by the context within which the variable is discussed — Independent and dependent variables — Extraneous and confounding variables — Continuous and categorical variables 1.
Independent and dependent i. Extraneous and confounding variables — Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study of computer- assisted instruction — Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent variable and exert influence of the dependent variable Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling approaches 3.
Categorical variables can be further categorized as nominal, ordinal or dichotomous. Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order. For example, a real estate agent could classify their types of property into distinct categories such as houses, condos, co-ops or bungalows. So "type of property" is a nominal variable with 4 categories called houses, condos, co-ops and bungalows. Of note, the different categories of a nominal variable can also be referred to as groups or levels of the nominal variable.
Another example of a nominal variable would be classifying where people live in the USA by state. In this case there will be many more levels of the nominal variable 50 in fact. Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels. For example, if we were looking at gender, we would most probably categorize somebody as either "male" or "female".
This is an example of a dichotomous variable and also a nominal variable. Another example might be if we asked a person if they owned a mobile phone. Here, we may categorize mobile phone ownership as either "Yes" or "No". In the real estate agent example, if type of property had been classified as either residential or commercial then "type of property" would be a dichotomous variable.
Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables only the categories can also be ordered or ranked. So if you asked someone if they liked the policies of the Democratic Party and they could answer either "Not very much", "They are OK" or "Yes, a lot" then you have an ordinal variable.
Because you have 3 categories, namely "Not very much", "They are OK" and "Yes, a lot" and you can rank them from the most positive Yes, a lot , to the middle response They are OK , to the least positive Not very much. However, whilst we can rank the levels, we cannot place a "value" to them; we cannot say that "They are OK" is twice as positive as "Not very much" for example.
Continuous variables are also known as quantitative variables. Continuous variables can be further categorized as either interval or ratio variables. So the difference between 20C and 30C is the same as 30C to 40C. So, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because 0C does not mean there is no temperature. However, temperature measured in Kelvin is a ratio variable as 0 Kelvin often called absolute zero indicates that there is no temperature whatsoever.
Other examples of ratio variables include height, mass, distance and many more. The name "ratio" reflects the fact that you can use the ratio of measurements. So, for example, a distance of ten meters is twice the distance of 5 meters. Ambiguities in classifying a type of variable In some cases, the measurement scale for data is ordinal, but the variable is treated as continuous.
For example, a Likert scale that contains five values - strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree - is ordinal. However, where a Likert scale contains seven or more value - strongly agree, moderately agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, moderately disagree, and strongly disagree - the underlying scale is sometimes treated as continuous although where you should do this is a cause of great dispute. Write your answer on the space provided.
Is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or information about people, things, places, or events? Can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives.
Focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning i.
This data are the pieces of information that can be counted and which are usually gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for inclusion. Sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable. The aim is to manipulate an independent variable s and then examine the effect that this change has on a dependent variable s. The relationships between two variables. Design involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested without any random pre-selection process.
Statement to be proven or disproved. Uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling polls to get a sense of behavior with intense precision. Variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order. Nominal variables which have only two categories or levels.
Interval variables, but with the added condition that 0 zero of the measurement indicates that there is none of that variable. The researcher does not manipulate the independent variable s. Complete the concept map by writing words associated with the middle word. Be guided by the clues in the sentence below each graph. The detectives need more time to inquire about the case.
Insights Association www. Introduction This module discusses the topics that will help the learners to develop the ability to formulate a research problem and find answers towards these inquiries or questions.
Inquiry or research pushes you to a thorough or a detailed investigation of a certain subject matter. This kind of study involves several stages that require much time and effort. The learners need more time to think in finalizing its decision about a particular topic to research on or in determining the appropriateness of such topic by obtaining the background information of the study, and formulating some questions that you want to answer. Intended Learning Outcomes After this module, the learner demonstrates understanding of: 1.
One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study 2. General characteristics — Implies the possibility of empirical investigation — Identifies a need for the research — Provides focus — Provides a concise overview of the research 3. The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students to mandated drug testing programs 5.
Interest in the Subject Matter 2. Availability of information 3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic 4. Limitation on the subject 5. Personal resources Research Topics to be avoided 1. Facts cannot support topics like these. Highly technical subjects - For a beginner, researching on topics that require an advance study, technical knowledge, and vast experience is a very difficult. Hard-to-investigate subjects - A topic or a subject is hard to investigate if there is no available data or reading materials about it and if such materials are not-up-date or obsolete.
Too broad subjects - A subject or a topic that are too broad will prevent the researcher from giving a concentrated or in —depth analysis of the subject matter of the research paper. Too narrow subjects - The subjects are so limited or specific that an extensive or thorough searching or reading for information about the subject is necessary. Vague subjects - Choosing topics like these will prevent you from having a clear insights or focus on your study. For instance, titles beginning with indefinite adjectives such as several, many, some, etc.
Readers come across research paper titles in searches through databases and reference sections of research papers. They deduce what a paper is about and its relevance to them based on the title. Considering this, it is clear that the title of your paper is the most important determinant of how many people will read it. So keep the title brief and clear. Use active verbs instead of complex noun-based phrases, and avoid unnecessary details.
Moreover, a good title for a research paper is typically around 10 to 12 words long. Think about terms people would use to search for your study and include them in your title. Avoid: Effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: study of a multicenter mixed group Better: Psychosocial effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: a multicenter randomized controlled trial o Avoid abbreviations and jargon: Known abbreviations such as AIDS, NATO, and so on can be used in the title.
However, other lesser-known or specific abbreviations and jargon that would not be immediately familiar to the readers should be left out. Avoid: MMP expression profiles cannot distinguish between normal and early osteoarthritic synovial fluid Better: Matrix metalloproteinase protein expression profiles cannot distinguish between normal and early osteoarthritic synovial fluid Always write down the hypothesis and then take into consideration these simple tips.
This would help you in composing the best title for your research paper. The researcher should inform the reader about limits or coverage of the study. The scope identifies the boundaries of the study in term of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is focused. Sample phrases that help express the scope of the study: The coverage of this study……….
The study consists of …….. The study covers the ………. This study is focus on…….. The delimitation of the study is delimiting a study by geographic location, age, sex, population traits, population size, or other similar considerations. Delimitation is used to make study better and more feasible and not just for the interest of the researcher. It also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of your study which are not within the control of the researcher.
Sample phrases that expressed the delimitations of the study The study does not cover the…… The researcher limited this research to…… This study is limited to……… A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction.
It describes in concrete rather than theoretical terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses.
Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory. There is no formal hypothesis, and perhaps the purpose of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in order to develop some specific hypothesis or prediction that can be tested in future research. A single study may have one or many hypotheses. Actually, whenever the researcher talks about hypothesis, the researcher really thinking simultaneously about two hypotheses. Let's say that you predict that there will be a relationship between two variables in your study.
The way we would formally set up the hypothesis test is to formulate two hypothesis statements, one that describes your prediction and one that describes all the other possible outcomes with respect to the hypothesized relationship. Your prediction is that variable A and variable B will be related you don't care whether it's a positive or negative relationship. Then the only other possible outcome would be that variable A and variable B are not related.
Usually, we call the hypothesis that you support your prediction the alternative hypothesis, and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes the null hypothesis. Sometimes we use a notation like HA or H1 to represent the alternative hypothesis or your prediction, and HO or H0 to represent the null case. You have to be careful here, though.
In this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis and you are opposed to the alternative. If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism.
Your two hypotheses might be stated something like this: The null hypothesis for this study is: HO: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will either be no significant difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase.
In the figure on the left, we see this situation illustrated graphically. The alternative hypothesis -- your prediction that the program will decrease absenteeism -- is shown there. The null must account for the other two possible conditions: no difference, or an increase in absenteeism. The figure shows a hypothetical distribution of absenteeism differences. We can see that the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the outcome variable.
When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's assume you are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has gone through some initial animal trials, but has not yet been tested on humans. You believe based on theory and the previous research that the drug will have an effect, but you are not confident enough to hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce depression after all, you've seen more than enough promising drug treatments come along that eventually were shown to have severe side effects that actually worsened symptoms.
In this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this: The null hypothesis for this study is: 20 HO: As a result of mg. The figure on the right illustrates this two-tailed prediction for this case. Again, notice that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of the distribution for your outcome variable. The important thing to remember about stating hypotheses is that you formulate your prediction directional or not , and then you formulate a second hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the first and incorporates all possible alternative outcomes for that case.
When your study analysis is completed, the idea is that you will have to choose between the two hypotheses. If your prediction was correct, then you would usually reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. If your original prediction was not supported in the data, then you will accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative. Facts cannot support topics like these..
For a beginner, researching on topics that require an advance study, technical knowledge, and vast experience is a very difficult. A topic or a subject is hard to investigate if there is no available data or reading materials about it and if such materials are not-up-date or obsolete. A subject or a topic that are too broad will prevent the researcher from giving a concentrated or in —depth analysis of the subject matter of the research paper.
Choosing topics like these will prevent you from having a clear insights or focus on your study. If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a. Discus it within the group Write down the reason behind why you choose that research topic.
How would you compare and contrast the two? In the space below, make an appropriate diagram to show their similarities and differences. Introduction A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to your selected area of study.
The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you the author determine the nature of your research.
Works which are irrelevant should be discarded and those which are peripheral should be looked at critically. A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in the review must be read, evaluated and analyzed which you would do for an annotated bibliography , but relationships between the literature must also be identified and articulated, in relation to your field of research.
The literature review must be defined by a guiding concept e. It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries. Enumerate the purposes of review of related literature; 2. Familiarize themselves with the review or related literature in a quantitative research; 3. Make a graphical presentation of the systematic review of related literature; 4. Trace the steps of systematic review of literature; 5. Differentiate meta-analysis from other Literature-review methods; 6.
Document their research paper with their chosen referencing style; and 8. Practice the ethical standards in writing their literature-review results. Select, cite, and synthesize judiciously related literature and use sources according to ethical standards. Formulate clearly conceptual framework, research hypotheses if appropriate , and define terms used in study.
Present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework. What is Review of Related Literature? While the research problem is still being conceptualized, the researcher must already start reviewing literature. In identifying and defining the research problem, the researcher must be able to show evidences that the problem really exists and is worth investigating.
It is important that the researcher knows what is already known about the problem or what earlier researchers have found about it and what questions still need to be answered before the research questions or objectives are finalized.
Theories which the researchers use to explain the existence of a research problem and used as bases in analyzing relationships between variables can be generated from reference books on theories or from related studies. The researcher therefore, must have already read adequate literature at the start of the research activity.
It helps the researcher identify and define a research problem 2. It helps justify the need for studying a problem. It prevents unnecessary duplication of a study 4. It can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study 5. It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly identify and operationally define study variables 6. It helps formulate and refine research instruments 7. It provides lesson for data analysis and interpretation.
Traditional Review of Literature A "traditional" literature review provides an overview of the research findings on particular topics. A traditional literature is written by examining a body of published work, then writing a critical summary an impressionistic overview of the body of literature.
The purpose of a literature review is making clear for a reader what the research collectively indicates with regard to a particular issue or question. Traditional review is of different types that are as follows: 1. Conceptual review — analysis of concepts or ideas to give meaning to some national or world issues. Critical review — focuses on theories or hypotheses and examines meanings and results of their application to situation.
State-of-the-Art review — makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies on the subject. Scoping review — prepares a situation for a future research work in the form of project making about community development, government policies, and health services, among others. Systematic Review of Literature Systematic reviews aim to find as much as possible of the research relevant to the particular research questions, and use explicit methods to identify what can reliably be said on the basis of these studies.
Methods should not only be explicit but systematic with the aim of producing varied and reliable results. Such reviews then go on to synthesize research findings in a form which is easily accessible to those who have to make policy or practice decisions.
In this way, systematic reviews reduce the bias which can occur in other approaches to reviewing research evidence. The following table shows the way several books on RRL. Compare and contrast the two styles of RRL. Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review Purpose To have a thorough and clear understanding of the field To meet a certain objective based on specific research questions Scope Comprehensive, wide picture Restricted focus Review Design Indefinite plan, permits creative and exploratory plan Viewable process and paper trail Choice of studies Purposeful selection by the reviewer Prepared standards for studies selection 27 Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review Nature of studies Inquiry-based techniques involving several studies Wide and thorough search for all studies Quality appraisal Reviewers views Assessment checklists Summary Narrative Graphical and short summary answers Referencing is important 1.
It shows where you got information from you are not making up 2. It acknowledges the contribution of other people. It helps other people find source you found if they want more detail. It stops you being accused of plagiarism 5. There are two places in research chapter where referencing is placed: as cited in Chapter I and in the Reference List or Bibliography.
References Cited or Reference List 29 Reference List: Basic Rules Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page References with no quotation marks, underlining, etc. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay. Basic Rules 1. All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented or make hanging 0. Authors' names are inverted last name first ; give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors.
If the work has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
If you have more than one article by the same author, single- author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest.
When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns.
Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word. Capitalize all major words in journal titles. Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works, such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.
The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA- style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work book, article, electronic resource, etc. Single Author Last name first, followed by author initials. Berndt, T. Friendship quality and social development.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, Two Authors List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and. Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis.
Three to Six Authors List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand. Kernis, M. There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, More Than Six Authors If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al. Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44 3 , Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year If you are using more than one reference by the same author or the same group of authors listed in the same order published in the same year, organize them in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter.
Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e. Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, Reading Time: 1 min read. Share on Facebook Share on Twitter. Access Independent Project 1 5 Youtube. Access Guided Project 1 2 Youtube. Access Independent Project 4 4 Youtube. Access Project 2 Video 4 Youtube.
Access Independent Project 2 5 in this video, we complete the independent project 2 5 for microsoft access using the lifesanimalshelter 02 file. Today Hitz. Recent Posts. Last Seen. You May Like Also. We bring you the best Tutorial with otosection automotive based. Stay Connected.
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